Six Sigma Belt Facts and Information for Employee Satisfaction

There are three main levels of study, or ‘Belts’ within the Six Sigma business management and quality theory.  These trained and certified professionals work together within this hierarchy to raise quality levels and decrease expense within organizations or corporations.

The Black Belt is at the top. These individuals are very experienced in using Six Sigma to assist companies in increasing their productivity and improving quality and standards.  The Green Belt is just below the Black Belt.  These individuals act as assistants to the Black Belt professional and will sometimes act as leaders if they are qualified and show an interest in becoming a Black Belt at some point.  Below the Green Belt is the Yellow Belt.  These individuals have a minimal amount of Six Sigma knowledge and work more on the business end, helping to analyze the inner workings of the company so as to identify the problems that are threatening the infrastructure of the company.  All of these professionals work together in an teamwork environment in order to reach their goals.

At the top level, there are also Master Black Belts, who have been working with these methods so long they are easily able to train Black Belts and Green Belts to successfully lead a project to completion.  Some consider another level below Yellow Belts, called the White Belt.  These individuals are usually not recognized by the Six Sigma community at large because their level of understanding of the methodology is not at a trainable and certifiable level.

The Black Belt professional will take full responsibility for assigning tasks, designing and implementing plans, along with monitoring the plan as it is set in motion.  These plans are designed to target the key issues the company is having, repair those problems and realign the company in a way that increases productivity and profits while decreasing expenses and mistakes.  

Ailing company executives are sometimes at a loss to understand why their employees are unhappy; but this process can help with that as well.  Six Sigma professionals will analyze the situation much more closely and in a more organized manor than the executives would usually have time for.  They will quickly see, through research and analyzing techniques, whether the problem is occurring because of scheduling, pay, insurance or any number of the issues that employees tend to have with their company in a private way.  Often, a lack of communication between the management and the employees will lead to job dissatisfaction and disloyal employees.  

The Six Sigma professionals are often charged with the task of finding out what is creating a high turnover in the company and what can be done to stop it.  The executives within the company realize that employees must be satisfied or they will look for something else.  Often, however, they do not know how to improve the situation.  This is when they will ask for the assistance of the Six Sigma professionals. After meeting with the executives, the Black Belt professional will choose his or her team and begin work immediately in order to fix any and all problems that may be affecting the organization.

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Tutorial SPSS – Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL)

Anda bisa mengakses Tutorial SPSS terbaru di site:
http://www.smartstat.info/blog/tutorial/spss

atau via facebook :
http://www.facebook.com/smartstat.tutorial)

Contoh kasus 1 :Rancangan Acak Lengkap dengan Ulangan Sama

Berikut ini adalah hasil pengujian estrogen beberapa larutan yang telah mengalami penanganan tertentu. Berat uterin tikus dipakai sebagai ukuran keaktifan estrogen. Berat uterin dalam miligram dari empat tikus untuk setiap kontrol dan enam larutan yang berbeda dicantumkan dalam tabel berikut:

Tabel Data Berat Uterin (mg)

Perlakuan____________________________________________________________________ kontrolP1P2P3P4P5P6--------------------------------------------------------------------  89.8 84.464.475.288.456.465.6 93.8116.079.862.490.283.279.4 88.4 84.088.062.473.290.465.6 112.6 68.669.473.887.885.670.2---------------------------------------------------------------------Total 384.6353.0301.6273.8339.6315.6280.82249Y1.Y2.Y3.Y4.Y5.Y6.Y7.Y..---------------------------------------------------------------------

Tutorial RAL dalam format Pdf bisa Anda buka/download pada link di bawah.  Anda harus menggunakan Adobe Reader Versi 9 atau lebih untuk membuka objek SWF yang terdapat pada file tersebut.

Tutorial SPSS – Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) Format Flash (1 MB)

Tutorial Format Pdf:

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Tutorial SPSS – Interpretasi Output Analisis RAL

Interpretasi Output SPSS:
Contoh kasus 1 :Rancangan Acak Lengkap dengan Ulangan Sama

Berikut ini adalah Tutorial interpretasi output SPSS yang merupakan kelanjutan dari: Tutorial SPSS – Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) – “Berat uterin tikus”

Tutorial RAL dalam format Pdf bisa Anda buka/download pada link di bawah.  Anda harus menggunakan Adobe Reader Versi 9 atau lebih untuk membuka objek SWF yang terdapat pada file tersebut.

Tutorial SPSS – Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) Format Flash (569.01 KB) Tutorial Interpretasi Output RAL Format Pdf:
Tutorial SPSS – Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) – Uterin Output (569.01 KB)

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Research Disciplines

This sections contains various research disciplines. It contains examples, cases and scientific knowledge about different academic fields.

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Psychodynamic Theories of Personality

The Psychodynamic Theories of Personality are mainly composed of famous theorists such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Alfred Adler. The Object Relations Theory also belongs to this group of personality theories. Let’s see how each theory explains the nature and process of personality.

Through his study of the psychosexual development of humans, Sigmund Freud was able to develop the Structural Model, which explains the three parts of a person’s personality (id, ego, and superego).

Freud believes that a person is born with Id, the pleasure-seeker portion of our personality. He believed that as newborns, the Id was crucial because it drives us to get our basic needs satisfied. For instance, a child is hungry and his Id wants food; this causes him to cry until his need is gratified. The Id is said to be inconsiderate of other circumstances – all it cares about is its own satisfaction.

In a span of three years, the baby grows and starts to learn new things as he interacts with the environment. During this time his Ego develops. The ego is rooted on the principle of reality as it is the part of one’s personality. It aims to satisfy Id but considers the situation at hand, thus balancing the Id and the Superego. .

When the child reaches the age of five, he begins to learn about the moral and ethical rules and restraints imposed by his parents, teachers and other people. This is the time the Superego develops. It is based on the moral principle as it tells us whether something is right or wrong.

According to Freud, the healthy person has his ego as the strongest part of his personality.

Alfred Adler’s theory states that all of us are born with a sense of inferiority as evidenced by how weak and helpless a newborn is. By this, Adler was able to explain that this inferiority is a crucial part of our personality, in the sense that it is the driving force that pushes us to strive in order to become superior.

In addition to the Inferiority Theory of Personality, Adler also considers birth order as a major factor in the development of our personality. He believed that first born children may feel inferior and may even develop inferiority complex once their younger sibling arrives.  The middle born children, on the other hand, are not as pampered as their older or younger sibling, but they have a sense of superiority to dethrone their older sibling in a healthy competition. Thus they have the greatest potential to be successful in life. The youngest children may feel like they have the least power to influence other members of the family. Because they are often the most pampered, they may develop personality problems of inferiority just like the first born.

The stages of Psychosocial Development involves challenges that a person must overcome in order for him to become successful in the later stages. First, at age 0 to 1 year, the child must have the ability to trust others; else he will become fearful later in his life as he would feel he couldn’t trust anyone. Second, at age 1 to 3, he must develop autonomy, or he will suffer from shame and doubt in the future. Third, at age 3 to six, he must learn to assert himself by planning and leading activities, or he will feel guilty and remain a follower and decline leadership opportunities. Fourth, at age 6 to 12, the child must nurture a sense of pride and confidence through his achievements; else he will feel discouraged and will always doubt about what he can do. Fifth, at adolescence, the teenager must have a strong sense of identity; or else he will have personality problems as he becomes confused of what he wants to accomplish. Sixth, the young adult may be optimistic of the things around him because he is involved in an intimate relationship, or he may become pessimistic because he may not be committed in a healthy romantic relationship. Seventh, during middle adulthood, a person feels productive when he is able to contribute to the society through hard work, while he may feel the other way around when he fails to do his job well. Lastly, ego integrity in late adulthood brings about a joyful, positive personality while despair is felt by those who looked back at their early years and saw that they were unproductive.

Object Relations Theory states that an object (a person, part of that person or his symbol) relates to another through actions or behaviors that are influenced by the residues of past interpersonal relationships. It is a theory that talks about the relationships inside a group of people, particularly that within a family.

 

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The Exhumation of Tycho Brahe

A follow up test by the University of Lund, using a proton microscope, found that this dose of mercury had been delivered in one dose, about 13 hours before his death, a finding that cast new light onto the death of this great astronomer.

This is Part II of "The Exhumation of Tycho Brahe". Part I - Was Tycho Brahe Murdered?

Was Tycho Brahe poisoned? It would be easy enough for an assassin to place a few drops of mercuric chloride into a glass, a dose often sufficient to kill.

Of course, CSI type investigations apart, this does not comprehensively prove that the astronomer was murdered – the dose may not have been high enough to kill. There is also the fact that Brahe was a keen alchemist, using mercuric compounds regularly, so there is the possibility that he may have accidentally poisoned himself in the course of his studies. However, as a nobleman and scholar, with a high-charged lifestyle, there is little doubt that Brahe had many enemies, many with a motive for killing the astronomer.

Johannes Kepler: The most common theory is that Kepler, a student of Brahe, instigated the murder. Brahe was reluctant to share his data with the younger astronomer, so there is the possibility that Kepler may have murdered his mentor so that he could obtain this unique data. Kepler may also have been jealous of Brahe’s fame and fortune, creating a motive for murder!Christian IV: Christian IV, the King of Denmark, is an illustrious addition to the list of subjects. It is alleged that Brahe had a passionate affair with the King’s mother, creating enough shame and resentment that the King ordered the death of Brahe – revenge is always a strong motive for murder. The way in which Christian completely humiliated the astronomer, tearing the observatory asunder and leaving few traces of its existence, suggests a deeper motive. There were rumors that the King was illegitimate, further antagonizing the monarch.Count Eric Brahe: According to Peter Andersen, of the University of Strasbourg, Eric Brahe, the distant cousin of Tycho, was the main suspect. Eric, a diplomat employed by the Danish crown, recorded many meetings with Hans, the cousin of Christian IV of Denmark, and suspects that he may have been the poisoner responsible for administering such high doses of mercury about 13 hours before the death of the astronomer.Hand-colored engraving in Tycho Brahe's observatory (Public Domain)

Andersen speculated that the orders came from the King of Denmark himself, and Tycho Brahe’s hurried flight from Denmark does indicate that he may have been in some danger.

The traditional view is that Eric Brahe, related through the Swedish branch of the family, was devoted to his cousin and was a constant companion in the days before Tycho’s death. However, Andersen points out that Eric lived a similar hedonistic lifestyle to his cousin, resulting in near-constant financial difficulties and forcing him to hawk his services as a senior diplomat in many European countries.

According to Andersen, Eric, related only through the Swedish branch of the family that had diverged 200 years previously, did not know Tycho before meeting in Prague, but soon became a confidante of the older man. However, the diary relates that, upon arrival in Prague, in 1601, Eric met many known enemies of the astronomer, and Andersen also believes that Eric expressed remorse throughout his diary.

Eric Brahe was implicated in a plot to kill his own brother-in-law, so it seems that he had few scruples, especially when this was combined with his perennial need for money. Eric Brahe obtained an invite to the banquet held by Baron Peter Vok von Rosenberg, another nobleman in financial difficulties and one who Andersen believes may have been ingratiated into the plot to kill Tycho.

According to Kepler, Tycho Brahe fell ill during the banquet and could not pass urine, contacting a fever, but he recovered 5 days later. Eric appeared on the scene again, visiting Tycho’s home on the 20th October, noting this in his diary, following this up with visits on the 22nd and 23rd. The question is did he administer the mercury salts that appeared to enter Tycho Brahe’s system 13 hours before his death?

Therefore, there is a great deal of circumstantial evidence implicating Eric Brahe and Christian IV of Denmark as those who killed Tycho Brahe. The evidence, currently, is theoretical and circumstantial, so Tycho Brahe’s exhumation, leading to a computer tomography of the skeleton and the testing of bone material, may give the physical evidence that can lad to a posthumous conviction.

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Erikson’s Psychosocial Model

When does a person start to learn how to trust other people? In what age would a person be ready to know how can he become a good individual? Why do many people feel some sort of identity crisis going on inside of them? These are just a few questions that are explained in the theory developed by Erik Erikson. Erikson’s Psychosocial Model involves 8 stages of human development across the lifespan.

The infant’s basic needs are required to be satisfied by his primary caregivers, preferably his parents. When the baby is crying because he is hungry, his mother must satisfy his hunger through giving breast milk and feeding him. If the infant is able to consistently rely on his mother for sustenance and support, he would develop a sense of trust, he knows that he can hope for a dependable someone to satisfy his needs. However, when his mother does not positively respond to the baby’s need, the infant would have a sense of mistrust, that is, he feels that everyone is unreliable.

When the child reaches the age of 2 to 4, he begins to explore his environment. When the parents are supportive and encourages him to do so but still protects him from danger, the child feels a sense of autonomy. However, when parents or caregivers are restricting the child from learning things, like not letting the child dress himself when he says he can do it, the child may feel shameful and doubtful of trying new things.

When the child reaches this age, he may feel that he wants to accomplish activities on his own for a certain purpose. Caregivers must promote a sense of initiative in them such as letting them be the leader of a group of children. On the other hand, he may feel guilty about his needs and wants if the parent would not allow him to do things independently.

At this age, children are more eager to learn more things, and want to master skills like reading and writing, to the extent that they compete with other children. When parents and teachers are able to encourage children through praising them for their accomplishments, they feel that they are productive, and they show industry through being patient and diligent. However, if they are punished for exerting efforts, they may feel inferior and their self-esteem becomes low.

Becoming an adolescent involves feeling a mixture of emotions. At this age, the person wants to know who he really is through the roles he plays in the society. When he fails to accomplish this identity crisis, he would have role confusion which would affect his adult life.

At this age, an individual may feel loved and wanted when he encounters someone with whom he can share the rest of his life. When his friends settle for good to form their own families and the person is left without anyone to accompany him, he may feel isolated and withdrawn.

At this age, the person wishes to produce something of real value for the benefit of the younger generation. When, he fails to do so, he may feel that he is unproductive.

Towards the end of one’s life, the person would look back at his past years. When he feels that he had lived a satisfying life, he would have a sense of ego integrity. However, he may feel that he’s in despair if he was unproductive or was not able to accomplish his life goals.

 

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Renaissance Geology (PART II)

The great anatomist, Nicolaus Steno, born Niels Stenson, took the next leap forward in geology. Steno hailed from Copenhagen, Denmark and, like his predecessor, Agricola, was trained as a physician.

Renaissance Geology – The Foundation of Earth Science Part I

Steno's Prodromus 1669 (Public Domain)

Steno traveled throughout Europe as part of his studies and work, before becoming the chief physician to Grand Duke Ferdinand II of Florence. He shared a passion for geology with the Duke, who may also have seen the potential for making money by a more efficient process of finding and smelting ores. Following from Gessner, Steno looked at glossopterae (tongue stones) and set out to prove that they came from animals. In the autumn of 1666, fishermen landed a shark and the Grand Duke of the Medici, Ferdinand the Second, ordered it brought to court for Steno to dissect and study. Steno, the following year, produced a report stating that these fossils derived from the teeth of sharks rather than by the action of any force inherent within the earth. Previously, scholars believed that these stones were created in the earth, although some did note the resemblance to the tongues of various animals and even shark’s teeth, so Steno did have a base of knowledge on which he could build. His study was laid down in his great work, De Solido Intra Solidium Naturaliter Contento Dissertationis Prodromus (The Forerunner of a Dissertation on a Solid Naturally Contained within a Solid), usually referred to as the Prodromus. This book, published in 1669, laid down his belief in an organic origin of fossils and, some time after his death, became a staple text for geologists throughout Europe and the New World. Like his predecessors, he looked at the various types of mountains, created by volcanism or the force of erosion, but he also looked at fault mountains and felt that forces such as earthquakes could create them.

Sadly, Steno suffered from a conflict between his scientific work and his Catholic religious beliefs. He studied this field for three years before giving it up, eventually becoming a Catholic priest and later a bishop, performing missionary work in Northern Europe. Despite this, he left an awe-inspiring legacy, and he established the fundamental laws of stratigraphy, the first time that a geologist proposed the processes of sedimentation and fossilization. Considering that this theory conflicted with the Catholic idea of creationism and a great flood, it is little surprise that he felt unable to continue with his research in this field. He proposed that each stratum is deposited from a fluid suspension onto a solid surface, and that fossils are often incorporated at this stage. Three laws define his ideas about stratigraphy:

The Law of Original Horizontality: Each stratum is continuous and in the horizontal plane.The Law of Superposition: Stacking of strata takes place, with younger strata at the topThe Law of Concealed Stratification: These layers can be disturbed by volcanism and movements of the earth. If the edge of a layer is exposed, this demands an explanation, such as earthquake, volcanism or erosion

Steno’s observations were in and around Tuscany, so he did not study igneous rocks that are non-native to that particular area, but his work on stratigraphy was excellent in its breadth, depth, and insight. He knew that the process of organic material turning into crystal took an extremely long amount of time, and he proposed that the processes behind geology were ancient. Steno’s work included a likely history of the geology of Tuscany, the first example of a geological case study, and he used diagrams and concise text to describe the processes of stratification, also recognizing the importance of water in shaping landscapes.

His work had to pass the Catholic censors and it was during a period of waiting for approval that the geologist lost interest in the subject. The work of Steno is a great example of fringe science causing a paradigm shift: His work was ignored by his contemporaries and subjected to censorship by the church, but a century later, as culture moved into the Age of Enlightenment, his rediscovered work became a crucial part of not just geology, but of natural science. This great, intuitive geologist influenced paleontologists and his work was the seed around which Linnaeus, Wallace, and even Darwin could grow their theories about the origin of animal species. Their theories owed much to Steno’s diligence in showing that fossils were organic in origin, as well as his idea that strata could be dated comparatively. This scholar, although he only studied geology for three years, earned a place as one of the great Renaissance Men.

It is inaccurate to say that geology as a scientific discipline truly began during the Renaissance, because it tended to be studied alongside other fields. The 18th century would see the true study of geology and the closely related paleontology as distinct disciplines. However, many of the great Renaissance Men laid the foundations, showing that the traditional creationist view had holes in the theory, proving that fossils were once alive and proposing that rocks arose from sedimentation, following a strict timeline. These scholars opened up new areas that would see geology become one of the most important sciences of the Enlightenment, drawing it away from the study of mineralogy and mining, and moving it towards studying the structure and the formation of the earth. Ultimately, geology and paleontology would influence many areas of science, from physics to evolutionary biology, giving a timescale for the formation of life on earth.

 

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Isaac Newton

When talking of Renaissance history and the Enlightenment, Isaac Newton (1643-1727) stands as the scholar who oversaw the transformation from Renaissance thought, still largely built around a religious framework, to a quest for knowledge without the need for God.

Newton as a young (Public Domain)

While Newton was a religious man, his research, theories, and philosophy caused a subtle shift in thought and the shaping of modern science, as we know it, although the wider picture is a little more complicated; the Reformation; the rise of the New World; and increased mobility of people and ideas also contributed. However, during this shift in thought, one of the largest in human history, Newton followed on from Aristotle, Avicenna, Galileo, and Francis Bacon in shaping the scientific method and creating a model that dictated how the universe worked. This physical model would survive until the coming of Poincare, Einstein and General Relativity, and Newton’s methods are still widely used and are taught in schools around the world. While most of us remember Newton as the discoverer of gravity, his research included mathematics, optics and philosophy in a revisiting of the great polymaths of old, a body of research that led him to create his great opus.

Isaac Newton really was a man who sprang from humble beginnings, as a child of an illiterate farmer, who died three months before Newton was born, but his inborn intelligence and intuition would soon see him rise out of this way of life. As a child, he displayed an aptitude for mechanics, constantly tinkering and creating machines and devices, and constructing elaborate windmills, sundials and waterclocks. This practical side would influence his later scientific work in physics and alchemy as he voraciously devoured knowledge. During his school years, he showed inquisitiveness and a thirst for learning, burying himself in his books and neglecting his duties on the family farm. His potential may have been wasted had his mother had her way and insisted on him becoming a member of the noble Lincolnshire farming community, but his Cambridge-educated uncle had different ideas and saw a great deal of untapped intellectual potential in the boy. He returned to school and finished his studies, entering the notable Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1661, where he embraced the academic life and embarked on a course of self-improvement, always striving to fill gaps in his knowledge. Here, he had access to all the latest works in science, philosophy and religion, contributing to a well-rounded education. During his studies, he was introduced to Cartesian physics and philosophy, as well as the work of Kepler in planetary motion and Galileo’s mechanics. Due to his teacher, Isaac Barrow’s interest in optics, the young student developed a sophisticated knowledge in this field, the area that he soon mastered and which would contribute to many of his breakthroughs.

Newton's Opticks (Public Domain)

Even here, fate was to take its course: During the course of his degree, the infamous Black Death sweeping through England meant that Newton had to return home for a year, due to closure of the university until 1667. It was here that he enjoyed a year of reflection and putting what he learned into practice, making his famous breakthrough when he discovered that white light was made up of many colors. During this period, he also worked upon the mathematical picture in his mind that would develop into calculus, his greatest contribution to science and mathematics. This work would soon form the basis of his fame and, upon his return to Cambridge, Newton was given a fellowship. In a wonderful display of academic magnanimity, Isaac Barrow resigned his chair in favor of Newton, recognizing that the pupil had surpassed the master, perhaps understanding that Newton had the intellect and insight that only comes around every few generations. Barrow circulated many of Newton’s papers in the right academic circles and ensured that his work was taken seriously. In 1672, Newton gave a series of lectures about his theories of optics to the Royal Society and he was elected a fellow, one of the most prestigious awards in the academic world. With this mandate, he continued his work and his discoveries of the properties of light and optics started to influence and change opinion, creating a subtle paradigm shift.

Isaac Newton, painted by Godfrey Kneller 1689 (Public Domain)

Newton’s work on the movement of bodies and gravitation would not become influential until halfway through the next decade when, in 1884, Edmund Halley, later to become the Astronomer Royal, asked for Newton’s input in a particular area of planetary motion. For a while, mathematicians and physicists had proposed the influence of gravity upon planetary motion, and suspected that a force emanating from the sun influenced the movement of the planets. This unseen force tied the planets into orbits and followed the inverse square law, where the force acting upon the planets was inversely proportional to the square of the intervening distance. However, they had no way of proving it, despite the attentions of some of the greatest minds of the age. Upon asking Newton for his insights, Halley found that the scholar had already proved this, so Newton set about writing the proofs, giving a series of lectures and expanding them into his notable Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. This book, also called the Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica, or the Principa, regarded as a landmark text that stands alongside Euclid’s Geometry as a book that changed the scientific world.

Newton's Principa (Public Domain)

Newton’s life then took a strange turn into politics: In 1689, he was elected as the Member of Parliament for Cambridge University and he was employed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, in 1695, as a warden responsible for prosecuting coin clippers and counterfeiters, and pursuing other financial fraudsters. Excelling at this task, Newton then became the Master of the Royal Mint, a position that he held until his death. His Mastership of the Mint was, by no means, a full-time position and his thoroughness and efficiency meant that he had plenty of free time for his academic pursuits, returning to his work on mathematics. Amongst a raft of papers, he produced further work on optics, new and updated versions of the principia, and a few other books, the Arithmetica Universalis, De analysi, and the Methodus Differentialis. Newton’s influence was so great that very few dared to question his findings and those that did tended to be based in continental Europe. The German philosopher and mathematician, Gottfried Leibniz, had a long-running feud with Newton, concerning who actually invented calculus, with claim and counterclaim flying across the English Channel. This was never fully resolved, and it is now accepted that both of these great mathematicians developed calculus independently, albeit influenced by each other’s work and initially, at least, acknowledging the findings of the other. Controversy also surrounded Newton’s treatment of Robert Hooke, the father of microscopy and the scholar who proposed the inverse square law of gravity. While President of the Royal Society, anecdotal evidence suggests that Newton tried to obscure the work of Hooke and had the earlier scholar’s portrait removed. This is unclear and Newton certainly paid heed to earlier astronomers and mathematicians such as Huygens, Kepler, Copernicus, and Descartes, who all provided foundations for Newton’s work, so it seems strange that he would single out Hooke in this way, although academic jealousy is a strange and unpredictable universal force.

Long after his death, Newton’s influence continued, with no real challenges to Newtonian physics arising until the early 20th century and the Theory of General Relativity. Most modern observers tend to define Newton by his contributions to mathematics, optics and calculus, but he made contributions to theology, philosophy and the natural sciences, too. Of course, Newton was notoriously shy and attracted a lot of academic jealously and accusations of plagiarism, with some foundation, but there is no doubt that he earned a place as one of the great movers behind the development of modern civilization.

 

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Steps of the Scientific Method

Conducting research involves using the scientific method at its core. Therefore, before any research is undertaken, it is important to be aware of the steps.

The research methodology has not come up overnight, but has evolved through hundreds of years of science. The history of science is interesting and intriguing, giving an insight into the developments of modern day science.

There are several pioneers who shaped the current research process. You may like to look at who invented the scientific method to get an idea of the early scientists and the influence they have, directly or indirectly, on what every researcher does today.

At the heart of the research methodology, is the fundamental and lingering question of the definition of research. This is by no means a trivial question and the answer constantly keeps evolving with time.

To understand the world around us, the researcher needs to know and understand the definition of the scientific method. This will be central to the research process and subsequent conclusions drawn from the experiment.

 

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Renaissance Physics

During the Renaissance, the growing fields of physics and astronomy shared a lot of common ground and most theories concerning physics also sought to explain cosmological phenomena.

I think that in the discussion of natural problems we ought to begin not with the Scriptures, but with experiments, and demonstrations.

Galileo Galilei

In modern science, there is still a lot of overlap between the two disciplines, with physicists using the universe as a huge laboratory for testing theories through observation. Cosmologists and astrophysicists study the effects of gravitational lensing or try to look back through time, using ever more powerful telescopes, in a quest to find the elusive beginning of the universe. This intertwining of the disciplines began with the Greeks and other early cultures and has endured for millennia, including during the Renaissance, where luminaries such as Galileo, Newton, and Leibniz used observations of the universe to create physical laws that explain the timeless motion of the universe.

Galileo Moon Drawing (Public Domain)

Any discussion about Renaissance physics must start with Copernicus, who blended mathematics, cosmology and physics in his quest to design a model of the universe. Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed a number of revolutionary ideas concerning the structure of the solar system and the position of the earth in the heavens. His idea was built upon astronomical observations gathered over the millennia, but also required a theory explaining why these objects behaved as they did. Copernicus took Ptolemy’s idea of the universe, with the earth central to the model, and proposed that a model with the planets revolving around the sun fitted the observations much more closely than Ptolemy’s, although he still believed that the orbits were circular, so Copernicus’ model still required epicycles. Copernicus’ ideas took a long time to become accepted, with Galileo championing this model almost 100 years later, although the Church applied pressure, believing that this heliocentric model of the universe conflicted with biblical doctrine. However, this model still assumed that the universe was perfect and that everything reflected some inbuilt harmonious model, with everything made of perfect spheres and circles, completely without eccentricity and disorder. During the Renaissance, physics and astronomy lay at the root of metaphysics, and the idea of God’s perfection still held sway, a paradigm that would remain until the findings of Galileo and his struggle against church doctrine.

Galileo as a young (Public Domain)

Galileo’s use of the telescope challenged the idea of perfection and also showed that a Copernican model of the universe was far more accurate, albeit incomplete. For the first time, observers could see that the universe had distinct imperfections and that the heavenly bodies did not behave as they should. Galileo discovered that the moon had mountains and looked to be very similar to the earth, also showing that Jupiter had its own set of orbiting moons, something that shook the world of astronomy to its core. Galileo’s astronomical work was controversial, but his work upon physics was more controversial still. We still remember this scholar for his work on gravity and mass, although the tale of dropping objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa belongs in the realm of urban mythology and was probably performed by the scholar Simon Stevin a few years earlier. Galileo’s experimentation and theories showed that, counter-intuitively, a larger or heavier object did not fall to the ground any more quickly than a lighter object. He built upon the work of the earlier Greek and Islamic mathematicians, but gathered all of the information together and added to it, developing a great theory to explain how the universe worked, an idea that would form the foundation of the work of Newton and later physicists. His other contributions included the idea of force. Aristotle, correctly, showed that the velocity of an object was dependent upon the external forces acting upon it, and made no distinction between velocity and acceleration. Aristotle believed that objects moved due to his theory of the four elements, that each element tried to return to its natural state: A rock falls rapidly because it is trying to return to the earth. By contrast, a feather falls more slowly because it is also of the air.

Drawing of pendulum clock designed by Galileo Galilei around 1641 (Public Domain)

Galileo took this one step further and showed that velocity and acceleration were two different abstract ideas – an object with no external forces acting upon it would maintain a constant velocity, but external forces could cause acceleration or deceleration. This law of inertia, stating that an object will move at a consistent velocity until another force acts upon it, is a first principle of physics and is still used today. Much of the work of Galileo depended upon his observation of pendula, but he carried this on into studies of falling objects. In trying to understand how objects fell to earth, he did not simply take things to the top of a tall building and drop them, because he had no way of controlling the variable, apart from the obvious practical difficulty of observing and timing the fall of such objects. In fact, he built a series of ramps at various inclines, with a smooth channel down which he could roll smooth balls. He discovered that it was the distance that the object fell, not the weight, that was important; objects accelerated the further they fell, but weight did not affect this and they all accelerated at the same rate. The experiments of Galileo, with pendula and balls, were a great example of the scientific method and he used both induction and deduction to design his experiments and generate results and conclusions. This method earned him a reputation as the father of experimental science in some circles, although such designations are always subjective. Because his work contradicted the teachings of the church, he spent the latter years of his life under house arrest.

A discussion of Renaissance physics cannot take place without mentioning William Gilbert (1544-1603), an English doctor who studied magnetism and electricity, even if he was not sure of the exact principles governing these phenomena. Gilbert was born in Colchester, Essex, and studied at Cambridge University, eventually becoming a renowned physician. During his time at the university and while he built his career, Gilbert studied the phenomenon of magnets and compasses, essential aids in a seafaring nation such as England.

Title Page of De Magnete, by William Gilbert (Public Domain)

Magnets, known as lodestones, and their properties of attraction, were well known to the Greeks and the Muslims, and sailors knew that a compass needle pointed towards the north. However, the exact reasons for this were unclear, with many scholars proposing that they were attracted to the North Star or to a group of magnetic mountains lying somewhere within the Arctic Circle. Gilbert was not happy with these explanations and set out to test the properties of magnets, seeking the advice of ship’s masters and compass manufacturers. He discovered a number of properties of magnets, using a large, spherical lodestone and a freely moving compass needle.

Rubbing certain metals with a magnet makes them also become magneticMagnets lose their power of attraction when they are exposed to high temperaturesMagnetic forces often produce circular motions

Because he realized that rotation and magnetism were often linked, he suggested that the earth was a huge magnet, a proposal that he put forth in his work, De Magnete, published in 1600. He also rejected the idea that the earth was at the center of the universe and proposed a heliocentric model with the earth as a giant magnet, with north and south poles. This work was immediately hailed as a breakthrough and would influence Galileo’s ideas of the structure of the universe. Gilbert’s experimental method, where he devised a series of experiments to test ideas and refine theories is possibly first example of an experimental scientific method. Gilbert also studied a phenomenon that he called electricity, based upon the Greek word for amber. This work in physics and mechanics created the foundations for the great physicists of the Enlightenment, such as Descartes, Newton, and Leibniz to formulate their great theories. More than any other area, physics and its closely allied discipline, astronomy, defined the Enlightenment and finally showed that the Bible did not hold an accurate picture of the universe.

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Kids' Science Projects

Here are a few suggestions on how to construct kids' science projects.Paper Towel Experiment
Which paper towel are more absorbent?Mold Bread Experiment
Does Mold grow quicker at higher temperatures?The Pendulum Experiment
What goes up must come down!Popcorn Experiments
Experiments with popcorn are a fun way to test a scientific theory with the added bonus of having some tasty food to eat afterwards.Paper Airplane Experiment
This experiment, as well as being great fun, is a chance for us to study something called ‘The Laws of Aerodynamics.’Charge a Light Bulb Experiment
Charge a light bulb with the use of comb with the Charge a Light Bulb Experiment. In this experiment, we will charge a light bulb just with the use of a comb and no other means of electricity.The Lifting Ice Cube Experiment
The Lifting Ice Cube experiment is a trick that will let you lift ice cubes without getting your hands wet or making use of a spoon!The Magic Egg Experiment
Did you know that you could make an egg bounce? Try the Magic Egg experiment and see how it works.The Magic Jumping Coin Experiment
If you want to learn a magic trick on thermal expansion, try the Magic Jumping Coin Experiment!The Salt Water Egg Experiment
The Salt Water Egg Experiment explains why materials (such as an egg) float more in salt water than in fresh water.The Invisible Ink Experiment
Have you ever tried making invisible ink? The Invisible Ink experiment shows you how to do it.The "Making a Rainbow"-Experiment
With this Making a Rainbow experiment, you’ll be able to understand how rainbows are formed because you are going to make one yourself.The Oil Spill Experiment
This Oil Spill experiment will help you understand the detrimental effects of oil spills to the marine ecosystem.The Balloon Rocket Car Experiment
Creating your own Balloon Rocket Car has got to be one of the most exciting experiments that you can do at home, with your friends and family.How to Build an Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet that attracts metals with the help of electricity.The Corrosiveness of Soda Experiment
In this experiment, we will be investigating the corrosiveness of soda. If you are one of those people who can’t last a day without drinking soda, read on.How to Create a Heat Detector
In this experiment, you will learn how to create your very own heat detector. By creating a heat detector, we will demonstrate the effect of heat to different kinds of materials.The "Volcano Experiment"
In the Volcano Experiment, you will learn how different substances react when they are mixed with each other.The Egg in a Bottle Experiment
This experiment illustrates the effects of air pressure.The Fruit Battery Experiment
Ever heard of a fruit battery? In this simple experiment, we will be creating our own battery with the use of citrus fruits, with a power that is strong enough to make a small bulb light up.The Home-made Glue Experiment
Have you ever tried creating home-made glue? By performing this experiment, you will learn different ways on how you can create glue and what materials can be used to create one!Home-made Stethoscope
A stethoscope is a medical instrument used for listening to the sounds of the body. Usually it is used to listen to the sounds made by the heart, breathing, among others.The Magic Balloon Experiment
Have you ever heard of magic balloons? In this experiment, you will witness a balloon inflating without you blowing it up!How to Make a Matchbox Guitar
If you are into music then you will definitely love this matchbox guitar project! A guitar is a string musical instrument that you pluck in order to create a sound.Make Your Own Slime - Experiment
Have you ever played with slime? Do you even know what that gooey brightly coloured material is actually made of?Heron's Aeolipile Experiment
A steam engine that worked on exactly the same principle as the great machines of the industrial revolution and many modern electricity-generating turbines.Archimedes Screw Experiment
A device still used around the world as a simple and efficient method of moving liquids and solid particles.Build an Astrolabe - Navigation and Mapping the Stars
The astrolabe is an instrument that allows observers to measure the position of celestial bodies relative to the horizon, which allows accurate star mapping.Archimedes Displacement Experiment
Repeat the experiment that made a naked man run down the street shouting ‘Eureka! Eureka!’Make Heron’s Fountain
How potential energy can provide power, using water and gravity, and air and compressionSundials
An Ancient Estimate the Time of the Day

Conducting science experiments isn't as hard as you think, the problem is often to come up with the idea for the project.

After you've conducted the experiment, you've still got to write a paper about the experiment afterward.

 

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Does Culture Affect our Personality?

Loosely defined, culture refers to the shared values, beliefs and norms of a specific group of people. Culture, therefore, influences the manner we learn, live and behave. Because of this, many theorists believe that culture is an important shaper of our personality. One of the general assumptions asserting the effect of culture to personality is that people who are born and bred in the same culture share common personality traits.

According to Franz Boas, pioneer of Psychological Anthropology or the study of the relationship between culture and personality, personality is obtained thru culture and not biology. His theory called Cultural Relativism gives a comprehensive understanding of the underlying relationship between culture and personality.

Boas’ student Ruth Benedict expounded the research on the effect of culture to personality through studying cultural various patterns and themes. Although she admitted that the global cultural diffusion has made the cultural patterns of civilized societies are difficult to trace, primitive societies located at the remote areas have preserved their shared personalities through their values, beliefs and rituals. When Benedict wrote her book Patterns of Culture, she mentioned her comparison of the cultural patterns of two different northern American Indian groups as well as an Indian group located off-coast of Papua New Guinea. In her study, she found out that although they are from similar genetic collection, these groups have significant differences in their respective value systems. For instance, one tribe’s idea of a “good man” differentiates to that of another.  Her book, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture, included a detailed description of Japanese belief and value system as well as a hypothesis on the reason behind the actions of the Japanese during World War II.

Arguably, Margaret Mead was one of the leading anthropologists of the 20th century. Being a student of Boas, Mead extended the school’s knowledge in culture and personality as she focused from the American culture to the whole Western World. She travelled to Samoa and she found out that the societies there have uniform value systems, and thus, they share common personality traits. In the culture of Samoan tribes, it was noted that until individuals reach the age of 15- 16, when they are to be subjected to marital rituals, they do not have significant roles in terms of social life. In fact, children are ignored by their parents and the rest of the society until after they reach puberty. Girls are taught to see boys as their enemies. The effect of this portion of the Samoan culture is that children tend to be either aggressive to gain attention, or passive due to the lack of affection and love from their significant others.

Evolution and genetics are believed to have brought about differences in personality traits as determined by the biological sex of a person. As explained by the Theory of Sexual Selection, males compete to attract females, so men are more likely to be aggressive and competitive than women. However, nowadays we may see that more and more women become aggressive in competing against other women for a man.

Our culture greatly contributes to the development of our beliefs and values. For this reason, both cultural psychologists and social anthropologists believe that culture affects one’s personality. In addition, gender differences also influence the personality traits a person possesses.

 

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Discovery Of Mobile Genetic Elements

Barbara McClintock was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine of 1983 for her discovery of mobile genetic elements. She discovered that genes could be unstable; that there are certain regions of our genome that are capable of switching positions; and that this gene movement occurs more frequently than the rate at which mutations in the genome occur.

McClintock's discoveries were not appreciated by the scientific community in the late 1930's to the early 1950's. The reason behind this was that her discoveries were far ahead than their current bio-molecular and genetic knowledge. Nevertheless, a great appreciation of her work began with the development of molecular biology only in the late 1960's.

During the late 1940's and early 1950's, the genetic code and the structure of the DNA double helix were not yet known. The only known fact during those times was that the DNA molecule stores the genetic information in its structure. Then McClintock pointed out that there exist mobile genetic elements in the genome of plants and probably in our own genome too. She suggested that certain parts of our DNA are capable of changing positions, thus, causing a change in the functions of our genes.

It was not surprising that a lot of geneticists were not prepared to accept this concept of “jumping genes.” It took decades of developments in the fields of molecular biology and genetics before it became apparent that the concept of jumping genes, if not universal, was quite common. These developments sparked further research in this field which produced outstanding discoveries which a|dded on what McClintock has already contributed.

Barbara McClintock was born on the 16th of June 1902 in Hartford, Connecticut. She received her B.S. in 1923, earned her M.A. in 1925 and her Ph.D. in 1927 all from Cornell University. She then became a graduate assistant in the Department of Botany from 1924 to 1927. In 1927, she was awarded the position of Instructor which she held until 1931. She was then awarded a National Research Council Fellowship in 1931 and spent two years as a fellow at the California Institute of Technology.

In 1933 McClintock received another fellowship this time from Guggenheim. A year later, she went home to US and joined the Department of Plant Breeding at Cornell. In 1936, she accepted an assistant professorship in the Department of Botany at the University of Missouri. In 1941, she accepted a research offer from the Carnegie Institution of Washington in Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Here she was free to pursue any research that she thought of. McClintock remained at Cold Spring Harbor for the rest of her life. She died on September 2, 1992.

During McClintock's lifetime, she received numerous awards from different award-giving bodies. She received the Kimber Genetics Award, National Academy of Sciences in 1967, National Medal of Science in 1970, Lewis S. Rosenstiel Award for Distinguished Work in Basic Medical Research in 1978, The Louis and Bert Freedman Foundation Award for Research in Biochemistry also in 1978, Salute from the Genetics Society of America on August 18, 1980, Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award in 1981 and Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize for Biology or Biochemistry in 1982.

Her researches started with an observation that in maize, kernels manifest different coloured patches. The prevailing answer to this observation was that certain chromosomes were more fragile than others, causing the genes in the fragile chromosomes to mutate more easily which causes unusual pigmentation. McClintock studied the structure of the chromosome of the kernels with the unusual pigmentation. She noted the structure, storage protein, starch content and the pigments in the individual chromosomes. From the ten pairs of chromosomes, she became particularly interested with chromosome pair nine.

It was indeed in chromosome pair nine where she found her first mobile genetic element which causes an interruption in the structure of the chromosome. She discovered that the chromosome was divided into two by this mobile element that she called dissociation or Ds. Its transposition along chromosome nine caused an interruption to the usual sequence of genes in the chromosome causing some genes to be completely turned off. She also found that Ds need a trigger for it to be activated. This trigger was called activator or Ac. Together, the Ds and Ac were regarded by McClintock as a control mechanism of gene activity.

McClintock also found that these control elements are also present in different chromosomes but they act as normal genes. It is only after transposition that they cause inactivation of neighboring genes. She also found that these mobile genetic elements can be a part of regulatory control system in gene expression. Some elements act by programming neighboring genes to be activated or inactivated at a later time which may be several generations later.

McClintock’s discovery paved the way to the discovery of the role of mobile genetic elements in the spreading of resistance to antibiotics from resistant to sensitive strains of bacteria. The notion of transferable drug resistance in bacteria is a serious problem in the medical field because drug-resistant bacteria cause infections and disease that are more difficult to treat. This also entails that we need to develop alternative drugs that can treat the infections caused by the drug-resistant bacteria.

The discovery of mobile genetic elements also contributed to our knowledge of how antibodies are formed. Scientists have long been fascinated by the number of antibodies that our bodies can create considering that our genome has a very limited number of genes. The possibility of having jumping genes gave them the answer to this mystery. It is much like having a limited number of letters, but by having the ability to rearrange the letters, you can form almost an unlimited number of words.

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Bowlby Attachment Theory

When a person is emotionally bonded with another person, attachment starts. However, the things that occur with the presence of an attachment are really difficult to understand, and this is the reason why attachment theorists emerged.

Perhaps the most prominent of this group of theorists, John Bowlby was the first psychologist who started an extensive study on attachment. According to Bowlby’s Attachment Theory, attachment is a psychological connectedness that occurs between humans and lasts for a long period of time. To Bowlby, attachment is what keeps a baby connected to his mother, considering the needs of the child that can only be satisfied by his parent.

There are four basic characteristics that basically give us a clear view of what attachment really is. They include a safe heaven, a secure base, proximity maintenance and separation distress. These four attributes are very evident in the relationship between a child and his caregiver.

Ideally, the child can rely on his caregiver for comfort at times whenever he feels threatened, frightened or in danger. For example, if a child is given a toy that he doesn’t like, he’d cry and his mother would remove the toy and hug the child so he would stop crying.

Here, the caregiver gives a good and reliable foundation to the child as he goes on learning and sorting out things by himself. For example, a child would ask questions to his mother about why his dad got sick and can’t play with him at the moment.

This means that the child aims to explore the world but still tries to stay close to his care giver. For example, a teenager discusses peer problems with his mother.

This means that the child becomes unhappy and sorrowful when he becomes separated from his caregiver. For example, an infant cries loudly when his mother leaves for work.

Aside from Bowlby, other theorists contributed to the study of attachment. Ainsworth, Main and Solomon are the main researchers who theorized the different styles of attachment that can be observed in the relationship of a person to another. These attachment styles include: secure, ambivalent-secure, avoidant-insecure and disorganized insecure attachments.

When children are securely attached to their caregivers (parents), they feel happy whenever their caregivers are around, but are upset when they get separated from them. While the child is in distress when his parent is away, still, he feels secured with the feeling that his caregiver will return sometime soon.

A child who is ambivalently attached becomes very upset and sorrowful whenever he gets separated from his parent. The child does not feel that he can rely on his caregiver whenever he is in need of something.

Simply put, a child who has an avoidant attachment tends to keep away from his parents. Studies revealed that this may be a cause of parents who are fond of neglecting or abusing their children.

This is when there is no clear (or mixed) attachment between the child and his caregiver. When the parent acts as an apprehensive caregiver and a reassuring one at different times, the child may get confused and cause this kind of attachment.

Why is studying Bowlby’s Attachment Theory important? Many studies have found out that determining the attachment style in social relationships have a lasting effect on the future behavior of people.

 

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Personality Trait Theory

The Personality Trait Theory is one of the most critically debated in the field of personality studies. Many psychologists have theorized using the trait approach to personality, which advocates the differences between individuals. To better understand the Personality Trait Theory, suppose you are asked to describe your friend’s personality. You may say that he is cheerful, sociable and fun to be with. These traits and more are the main focus of the trait approach. 

According to Gordon Allport, one English dictionary could provide you more than 4000 words describing or synonymous to a single personality trait. Because of this finding, he was able to categorize traits into three general levels. They include:

For sure you have heard the words “Christ-like”, “Freudian” and “Narcissist”. The origins and meanings of these traits are very easy to determine. A person may be called “Christ-like” if he sacrifices his own good for the benefit of others. Cardinal traits, therefore, are the ones that dominate the entirety of a person’s life such that a person carrying such trait may even become famous and have their name become synonymous with these traits.

These are general characteristics that you use to describe another person are called central traits. Examples include kind, sincere, cool and jolly.

These traits are those that only come out under certain situations. For example, you become uneasy when a pop quiz is announced.

From Allport’s list of about 4,000 traits, Raymond Cattell decreased the number into 1713 because he believed that uncommon traits should be eliminated. In his research, Cattell eventually narrowed down the list into 16 personality traits. He then developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), an assessment tool commonly utilized today. The 16 personality traits include:

1. Warmth (A)

2. Reasoning (B)

3. Emotional Stability (C)

4. Dominance (E)

5. Liveliness (F)

6. Rule-consciousness (G)

7. Social Boldness (H)

8. Sensitivity (I)

9. Vigilance (L)

10. Abstractedness (M)

11. Privateness (N)

12. Apprehension/Apprehensiveness (O)

13. Openness to change (Q1)

14. Self-reliance (Q2)

15. Perfectionism (Q3)

16. Tension (Q4)

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal trails:

Unlike Allport and Cattell, theorist Hans Eysenck only included three general traits in his list. They are:

As in Carl Jung’s personality type theory, Eysenck classified people as either introvert, those who directs focus on inner world, or extravert, those who gives more attention to other people and his environment.

This category is synonymous to “moodiness versus even-temperedness”, where in a neurotic person is inclined to having changing emotions from time to time, while an emotionally stable person tends to maintain a constant mood or emotion.

This dimension refers to the finding it hard to deal with reality. A psychotic person may be considered hostile, manipulative, anti-social and non-emphathetic.

As a result of a thorough research on Cattell’s and Eysenck’s personality trait theories, the Big Five theory was formulated. This model states that there are 5 core traits which collaborate in order to form a single personality. These include:

Extraversion - tendency to be active, sociable, person-oriented, talkative, optimistic, empathetic

Openness to Experience - tendency to be imaginative, curious, creative and may have unconventional beliefs and values.

Agreeableness - tendency to be good-natured, kind-hearted, helpful, altruistic and trusting.

Conscientiousness - tendency to be hardworking, reliable, ambitious, punctual and self-directed.

Neuroticism - tendency to become emotionally unstable and may even develop psychological distress

 

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How to Conduct Science Experiments

Since before the time of the Ancient Greeks, thousands of years ago, people have tried to find out more about the world around them, wondering how and why things work.

Scientists come up with many great ideas to show how things work, but for an idea to become accepted, it has to be tested.

The tool scientists use to test their theories is called the scientific method. Whether you are studying stars, caterpillars or medicines, this method remains the same.

If you have an idea, or a question, you have to be able to prove it and give evidence so that other scientists can check and test your results.

Here we are going to show you the best way to design and conduct science experiments.

Always check with your teacher exactly what needs to be included but if you follow these steps, you will not be far wrong.

RESEARCHPROBLEMHYPOTHESISEXPERIMENTRESULTSDISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The first step in any investigation is to research your topic. This can be done in a variety of ways.

The experiment you are trying to perform might be building upon ones you have done earlier or be a result of something you have noticed in everyday life.

You might, for example, have noticed that mold seems to grow quicker in hot temperatures and want to know if this is true.

You can use the internet, books, magazines or talking to knowledgeable people to try and find some details.

You can then do more research into the project because other people may have performed similar experiments. It is always a good idea to make a list of where you found each piece of information because you may need to use this in your report.

Now you must try to narrow down your research into one, easily testable, problem. For example, you might decide to find out whether mold grows quicker at higher temperatures. It is much easier to test one thing at a time.

If you wanted to test mold growth with different types of bread or varying amounts of light, it becomes complicated. The scientific way is to test one thing and get the results. Once you have the results for this experiment, you can always test other variables.

This is where we really start going. The hypothesis is one statement of fact that you are going to try and prove or disprove. It could be

“Mold grows quicker at higher temperatures.” (example)

“More expensive paper towel brands absorb more water.” (example)

It is always a good idea to say why you have picked this hypothesis.

Write down your hypothesis. This is what your experiment is designed around. It must never be changed even if it is wrong. Science is not about right and wrong, just coming to an answer.

There are three important variables you have to remember when you are designing your experiment.

Independent variable – this is what you change in order to provide a result. In the case of the mold bread experiment, it is temperature. In the case of the paper towel experiment it is the brand.

Controlled variables – these are the things that never change.

Dependent variable – this is what you are measuring, how much water the towel absorbs or how much mold grows on the slice.

It is important to make sure that you perform experiments in batches. One result can always be an accident but if you have 3 or more samples for each test under the same conditions then you can take a mean or average for your results.

As much as is possible, you must try and keep everything else the same. The bread you use for the mold bread experiment should be from the same loaf. The plastic bags should be the same. Be careful to make sure that you keep a list of the exact details of everything you use.

For experiments where you took samples outside, it is a good idea to give a map reference and even draw a small map, or use Google maps. Photographs of your methods and apparatus can also be excellent ways of describing your experiment.

Here is where you show your results and let the whole world know what you found at the end of the experiment.

You do not need to show all of your calculations; most people know how to take a mean, but you must make it clear that you did use a mean.

In this section describe what you found. Graphs and tables are good ways to present your findings. Other scientists find it a lot easier to study your data by looking at diagrams than at huge blocks of text.

Graphs and tables are fine with pen and paper if they are neat. If you know how to use computer programs to draw these, even better.

In the discussion, you assess how the results answer the hypothesis and discuss its relevance to the existing knowledge in the field.

When writing a conclusion, you should try to answer a your hypothesis, as succinctly as possible.

You will have already answered some of these in your discussion, but the key is to leave some questions that another can expand upon for their research project.

The next stage is taking all of your results and constructing a report paper.

 

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Discovery Of Split Genes

Similar to the context of most Nobel Prize winning researches, the discovery of Richard J. Roberts and Phillip A. Sharp regarding split genes contradicted the widely accepted scientific norm of the 1970's.

Rob were able to provide evidences that genes in higher organisms do not present as single, continuous strand in the DNA but rather, the genes present as several, well-separated segments. For this discovery, Roberts and Sharp were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1993. Their discovery led to a deeper understanding in the field of molecular biology and triggered researches concerning the development of different diseases.

DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all living organisms. It is composed of four bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. The order of these bases determines the information that the DNA contains. A gene is a stretch of DNA that contains detailed instructions on how to build proteins. This instruction is first copied from the DNA to messenger RNA or mRNA.

The information in the mRNA is then decoded in the ribosome wherein amino acids are assembled to form proteins. Decoding of the mRNA entails that the individual bases in the mRNA were read three at a time, each triplet of bases corresponding for a single amino acid. The gene coding for a specific protein is surrounded by sequences of DNA that tells an enzyme called RNA polymerase where to begin transcribing the RNA and where to stop. The signal that tells where to start making RNA is called the promoter.

In the 1970's, molecular biologists believed that genes present in a single, continuous strand in the DNA. This was challenged by the discoveries of Roberts and Sharp which showed that genes present in a separated manner.

Richard J. Roberts was born on the 6th of September 1943 in Derby, England. As a child, he initially wanted to become a detective but this immediately changed when he received a chemistry set as a present and knew he wanted to become a chemist. He then enrolled at Sheffield University due to their excellent chemistry department and graduated in 1965.

Fresh from college and just two years post-doctoral work at Harvard, Roberts was invited by Jim Watson to join him at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, where they worked together for more than two decades. Earlier in 1972, Roberts attended a seminar at Harvard Medical School given by Dan Nathans where he learned that an enzyme could cleave DNA into specific pieces. By the use of this enzyme, he began to map the DNA that lead to his Nobel Prize winning discovery.

Philip A. Sharp was born on the 6th of June 1944 in Falmouth, Kentucky. His early education was in McKinneysburg Elementary, Butler Elementary and High School and Pendleton County High School. He then enrolled at Union College and majored in chemistry and mathematics and decided that he wanted to continue learning about science, particularly chemistry.

Sharp was offered a fellowship and soon began graduate studies under Victor Bloomfield in physical chemistry. He completed his Ph.D. in chemistry at the University of Illinois in 1969. He then worked at the California Institute of Technology until 1971. After Caltech, he studied gene expression in human cells at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory under the mentorship of Jim Watson.

Roberts and Sharp wanted to know if the promoter sequence, the sequence of DNA that tells where to start making the RNA, of higher organisms is similar to the promoter sequence in bacteria which was relatively well-known during that time. They used an upper respiratory virus that grows in human cells called Adenovirus-2.

Roberts and Sharp began to develop methods whereby they could map the exact start of the mRNA sequences made from Ad-2 mRNA. They thought that if they could work out the sequence of the mRNA right to its very start, then they would merely need to locate the corresponding DNA sequence, identify the DNA sequence that preceded it and they have the promoter. To accomplish this, they developed a technique that allowed them to catch short sequences from the very start of the Ad-2 mRNAs.

Considering that there are many different mRNAs that Ad-2 creates, they were expecting to find 15-20 different promoter sequences which code for the different mRNAs. They were surprised when they found that there is only one sequence for all the mRNAs and that the main parts of the mRNA were encoded a long way apart from its very start.

By using electron microscopy, they were able to show that the genes in Ad-2 were indeed split into pieces. They found that a single mRNA molecule corresponded to no less than four well-separated regions in the DNA molecule. For these discoveries, they concluded that genes present in multiple, well-separated strands in the DNA molecule, split geneshave been discovered.

To give you a better picture of what Roberts and Sharp discovered, consider the figures shown below. The shaded area corresponds to the genes and the white area corresponds to unrelated DNA strands. In the bacteria, the gene presents as a single, continuous strand in the DNA molecule. However, in the Adenovirus-2 and in higher organisms including man, they found that the gene presents in a fragmented manner. A gene thus consists of several fragments called exons (shaded areas) separated by intervening DNA called introns (white areas).

The consequence of split gene discovery is that the first RNA product produced by the gene which still contains both exons and introns, needs to be edited such that the introns are eliminated from the mRNA and the exons are coupled together to form a shorter mRNA.

Split gene discovery also helped us understand how several diseases arise. An example of which is a form of anemia called thalassemia. This disease is due to inherited defects in the genetic material. These genetic defects cause errors in the editing process of the mRNA causing a formation of an abnormal messenger RNA.

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Renaissance Architecture (Part II)

Renaissance architecture was a major influence on building design, and it is an era that modern architects still regularly study, as a part of their course. The creation of great churches, monuments, and buildings filtered down to even modest residences, as shown by Palladio and his villas.

Renaissance Architecture - The Mathematics of Building the Dream Part I

Portrait of Andrea Palladio (Public Domain)

Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) wrote four books on architecture and, due to the demand for villas by the nobility, concentrated upon that particular market and developed most of his ideas about proportion and structural strength. This architect also built the San Giorgio Maggiore church (1565) and the Il Redentore church (1576), both in Venice. Palladio was born in Padua, Italy, in 1508, and travelled extensively, studying classical structures and writing a comprehensive treatise, I Quattro Libri dell’ architettura. In this book, he included diagrams of his own structures and those of Ancient Rome, in an attempt to show the perfect ratios that he felt should underpin architecture. His diagrams slightly deviate from the reality to prove his point, as he believed that this perfection was what the classical architects wanted, even if the implementation left much to be desired. Despite this misleading aspect, his work became a staple for Renaissance architects across Europe, also filtering into art and philosophy. The dimensions of Palladio’s buildings were usually whole numbers, with every single room conforming to a whole number ratio, such as the 1:2 ratio that represented an octave in music, or 2:3 that represented a musical fifth.

Villa Pojana by Andrea Palladio. Drawing by Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi, 1778 (Public Domain)

Palladio was one of the most famous architects of his age, and his work spread far and wide, especially influencing the adoption of Renaissance ideals in England and America. He believed in the harmonic ratios of Pythagoras: the Greek mathematician believed that the universe was governed by a set of numbers <1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 27> divided into two sets, <1, 2, 4, 8> and <1, 3, 9, 27>. These sets were derived from musical harmonies and, according to Pythagoras; they were the key to understanding the universe. Palladio used these numbers throughout his architecture, and these numbers and their derived ratios became crucial to his work. Other ratios were more complex, but represented musical harmonies and possibly slightly more complex ratios, such as 26:15. Like many Renaissance architects, Palladio also incorporated symmetry into his design and tried to use shapes such as squares and circles for maximum effect.

One area where the Renaissance changed the landscape was the increasingly ornate churches, where many of the classical themes used by Renaissance artists were developed. The main deviation from the original cruciform design, used during the earlier Gothic medieval period, was the belief that the circle was the most perfect structure and the sphere the most perfect solid, leading Renaissance architects, including Michelangelo and Da Vinci, to incorporate this principle into their work. Alongside Palladio, Serlio and Vignolaq also contributed to the architecture of the time, laying down mathematical rules for proportion, scale, and symmetry that would influence European architecture for centuries.

Golden Section Rectangle an Spiral (Public Domain)

There is little doubt that the Renaissance architects used simpler ratios to develop their designs, drawing heavily upon classical architecture, mathematics and sense of proportion. Tentatively, historians suggest that they also used complex ratios, such as Palladio’s musical harmonies or complex proportions such as the Golden Mean, a ratio that appears throughout nature and one that is emulated often by humans. This number is a ratio for length to width of rectangles, of 1.61803 39887 49894 84820, and it was believed to be particularly pleasing to the human eye. As with many of these proposed ratios, there are good counterarguments that the architects did not use anything other than practicality to determine ratios and that they were largely coincidental. There may be some truth in this, although the view that architects used these ratios was largely based upon the trends in Renaissance society and, if artists such as Da Vinci and Titian used such harmonies, it follows that architects were also likely to use similar processes, reflecting the overall philosophy of the time. One example of this is the Golden Mean and, while it appears throughout art and architecture, does this mean that artists used it consciously? Numbers close to this occur throughout nature, which has a habit of recycling such things, and parts of the human body and the branches of trees have ratios very close to the Golden Mean, so there is a chance that it could also be subconscious preference as artists replicate the world around them. Often, people are so keen to prove that the Golden Mean has been used throughout history that they suffer from confirmation bias and refuse to see alternatives. For example, many mathematical historians claim that the Ancient Greek architects built the Parthenon around rectangles of the Golden Ratio, but the measurement are not supported by statistics and, indeed, many different sized rectangles exist within the temple, making it difficult to separate any trend from amongst the statistical noise: the rectangles of the Golden Ratio could also be entirely coincidental. However, Renaissance architects, usually also excellent mathematicians, would have been well aware of this ratio and certainly could have consciously incorporated it into their designs in the quest for proportion and harmonic perfection.

The Renaissance style spread from Italy across Europe, and modern architects still study the forms and styles of this crucial period, with the great buildings and structures representing the pinnacle of Renaissance art, philosophy, and science. More than anything, the architecture of this period defines the prevailing thought of the time, perhaps eclipsing even the great Renaissance artists, scholars and philosophers. Certainly, the Renaissance saw architects elevated from craftsman to artist, but most of these architects were also skilled mathematicians and geometers, applying these skills to their work.

 

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Make Heron’s Fountain

Heron’s fountain is a great project for a science fair, as it is simple to make and displays many of the basic principles of physics. This project shows how potential energy can provide power, using water and gravity, and air and compression. These are fundamental aspects of pneumatics and hydraulics and Heron’s fountain also lets you have a bit of fun during the process.

The great Greek inventor, Heron of Alexandria (sometimes called Hero) created this device as one of his wonderful ways of showing students how the underlying physical and mathematical principles worked. Historians are almost certain that Heron (c. 10 CE – c. 70 CE) taught at the great university of Alexandria, Egypt, and used many of his inventions as teaching aids.

You now have the chance to follow his example, by using this apparatus to show your classmates physics in action.

Heron’s fountain was probably cast from bronze, at great expense, but we are going to make one from much simpler materials, easily found around the home or in a local hardware store.

A plastic basin

Two plastic soda bottles

Flexible plastic tubing, often used for aquariums

Two plastic jars with plastic lids

A stand for the basin

Silicone or some other waterproof sealant

HOW TO MAKE HERON’S FOUNTAIN

A good explanation of how the Heron’s Fountain works. If you feel adventurous, you could try something like this for your science fair project!

The Pakistan Science Club shows how to make a Heron fountain. You can do this, too!

If you can get hold of glass flasks and rubber tubing, this is a great version of Heron’s fountain.

The water in the basin contains gravitational potential energy and, as it falls downwards, it uses the pneumatic pressure of the air in the air supply container to push the water in the upper, fountain supply container. Once the water drops below the level of the outlet tube in the fountain supply, the Heron fountain will stop.

This experiment has lots of variations and many different ways of building depending upon time and resources. If you make one, why not film it and upload it to YouTube – you never know; we might just decide to feature it here!

Your basin will need to be raised, as it must be higher than the two bottles. You may have something that you can modify, or you can make one from Meccano as shown in the video.Make a hole in the bottom of the basin, just big enough for the tubing to fit through.Push a 24” – 36” length of tubing through and seal with the silicone.Make two holes in the lid of one of the plastic containers. This will become the air supply container and must be the lowest part of the apparatus. Push the tubing through one of these – it must reach almost to the bottom.Insert another piece of tubing through the other hole – you only need to push about an inch of tubing through the hole.Make sure that the seal around the tube is airtight, using the silicone sealant.Take your second container and make two holes through the lid of this one. This will become the fountain supply container and must be filled with waterTake the plastic tubing coming from the first container and push it through one of the holes. This only needs to be pushed in about an inch.Cut a final length of tubing and insert this into the second hole, pushing it in almost to the bottom of the containerUse the silicone to fill the gaps around the tubing.The fountain supply container must be higher than the air supply containerThis third length of tubing needs to run back to the fountain, as in the video – you can try to build a waterwheel, if you want!Slowly fill the basin with water and watch as water flows from the basin into the air supply container, through gravity. This will displace the water in the second container and cause it to shoot out of the tubing back into the fountain, higher than the original basin.If you want, you can insert the tubing running from the fountain supply container back into the basin through a second hole, making sure that it protrudes above the water level, to create a proper fountain.

At first glance, this appears to be a perpetual motion device; a machine that can keep running forever. However, this is not the case and, as the air supply flask fills with water, the jet of water from the nozzle will decrease in power and stop altogether. To restart the machine, you will need to empty this container and refill the fountain supply container with water.

The water in the basin contains gravitational potential energy and, as it falls downwards, it uses the pneumatic pressure of the air in the air supply container to push the water in the upper, fountain supply container. Once the water drops below the level of the outlet tube in the fountain supply, the Heron fountain will stop.

This experiment has lots of variations and many different ways of building depending upon time and resources. If you make one, why not film it and upload it to YouTube – you never know; we might just decide to feature it here!

 

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Childhood Temperament

Children show different kinds of attitude as they socialize with other people and explore the world. Childhood temperament, in psychology, involves many aspects of the child’s personality that leads to the formation of their attitudes and behavior. Understanding a child’s temperament is crucial in parenting and guiding the child throughout his life.

In order for us to understand childhood temperament, Thomas and Chess identified nine behaviors in children.

This refers to the physical energy of the child. A child may be very active and constantly moving, while another child may be behaved, relaxed and prefers to sit still rather than run around. The first child may be sports-oriented, while the second child may be more on fine motor activities like sketching and reading.

This refers to whether the child has routines or is random in terms of biological functions. If a child always wakes up at 7 am and wants to eat at 11 am, he may want things to be done in a routine manner, whereas a child who wakes up at different times may do things in random.

The main question here is, “Is the child hesitant in approaching other people or things, or is he bold and faces them as if without thinking?

Here, we ask whether a child is able to adjust to new things or changes in his environment easily, or he resists such changes.

When assessing for intensity, we ask the question, “Is the child calm during a certain situation, or does he become intense (e.g. excited)?”

This refers to the child’s response to a pleasant or unpleasant event or thing.

This refers to the likelihood of the child to be distracted or left undisturbed by other things in his environment.

When we want to know the child’s level of persistence, we may ask, “Does the child easily lose interest in doing an activity, or is he patient enough to finish it?”

This refers to a child’s tolerance towards changes in his surroundings. For example, a sensitive child may be distracted when his mother turns on the radio, while a less sensitive child is able to continue his task.

Looking at the nine behaviors that a child may show, Thomas and Chess were able to identify the three types of children in terms of their childhood temperament.

1. The easy child is one who has a routine in his biological functions like waking, sleeping and eating. He has a generally positive attitude, good mood, and adapts to change easily. He may become frustrated at times but he is capable of smiling again after sometime.

2. The difficult child is one who has random cycles of waking, sleeping, eating and elimination. When faced with new things or changes, he shows a negative behavior or approach like crying loudly or throwing tantrums. The need a longer time in order to adapt to new people, food or places.

3. The slow-to-warm-up child is one who initially shows a negative approach but of milder intensity than of the difficult child, when he is faced with new food, things, people and events. However, repeated exposure on these changes would lead to the child’s acceptance, and he may gradually show a more positive response towards them.  

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Renaissance Geology (PART I)

Until the Renaissance, any knowledge about geology was almost entirely built around scholastic reasoning, with the earth assumed to be the perfect creation of a divine being. Models of the earth followed ideas proposed by the Ancient Greeks, largely fitting around the elemental view proposed by Aristotle, where the earth lay at the center of the universe surrounded by spheres of water, air, and fire.

Renaissance Geology – The Foundation of Earth Science Part II

Very few scientists actually studied rocks or tried to determine where and how they arose, and most scholars believed in Aristotle’s idea that rocks evolved and changed over time, seeking to become a perfect element like gold or mercury. This idea of the evolution of metals and minerals was a foundation of alchemy. The Renaissance slowly changed this view, as empiricism and experimentation gradually began to supersede the old beliefs. Scientists started to study the earth and its ancient rock formations, understanding that this was one of the keys to developing a picture of the universe and learning why things happened. The astronomers, Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo certainly inspired much of the new way of thinking: If the earth did not lie at the center of the universe, then it was reasonable to assume that it was not perfect and that it was worthy of further study. Renaissance geology overlapped heavily with alchemy, especially in smelting and metallurgy, where geologists attempted to understand the distribution and nature of metal ores. This practice would eventually lead to large-scale production of metals and allow the industrial Revolution in England, an upheaval based around the ready availability and relatively easy production of iron, shifting the focus of humanity away from precious metals, although gold and silver would still inspire greed.

Picture of Georgius Agricola (Public Domain)

One of the most notable Renaissance geologists was Georgius Agricola (1494–1555). He hailed from Saxony, in Germany/The Czech Republic, studying and teaching in Leipzig before studying medicine and natural history in Northern Italy, the heart of the growth in Renaissance knowledge. He was a physician and general scholar in Chemnitz, renowned for breaking away from dogma and developing his own ideas about medicine, including advocating quarantine for certain illnesses. However, he also had a passion for mineralogy and metallurgy and he contributed six books about geology. He wrote his first book, the Bergmannus, an introduction to mining and mineralogy, before scribing his two great works on geology, De re metallica (1556), a book about smelting and metallurgy and De natura fossilium (1546), a treatise on mineralogy. Agricola advocated classifying minerals according to their physical properties, such as color, transparency, and hardness. Importantly, he shifted mineralogy away from alchemy and divinity, merely documenting what was actually there, although he was unsure about how to classify fossils, believing that some grew within the crust of the earth. His classification of metallic ores and their distribution would be of huge importance to the growing industrialism across Europe.

De re metallica, by Georgius Agricola 1556 (Public Domain)De Natura Fossilium (1546): In this book, Agricola classified his observations of the various minerals. Although he had no idea about the chemical composition of the minerals, he used color and hardness, amongst other attributes, to group them into categories. The major outstanding feature was that he performed a literature review of ancient sources, including Aristotle and Pliny, and he was prepared to reject any ideas that he did not agree with. In this respect, he was one of the first scholars to shift towards observational science rather than relying upon theories and the scholastic approach.De Re Metallica (1556): This work, published posthumously, was an in-depth guide to mining and mineralogy. It covered a broad spread of topics, from mining laws in his native Saxony, to finding and refining ores. Again, he reviewed classic literature, but he also used his approach of rejecting literature that he felt was incorrect and without foundation. Agricola included sections about the physical process of surveying, constructing, and operating mines, and he also included techniques for refining and smelting ores.Picture of Conrad Gessner(Public Domain)

The Swiss scholar, Conrad Gessner, was a skilled zoologist who made some excellent contributions to the fledgling field of geology. His book, On Fossils, Stones and Gems, looked at stones, gems, and fossils, and it was an extensive guide to the most common types. He did not really make any distinctions between fossils, gems and stones and, in fact, he used the term fossil to define all of these in the process of creating an excellent classification guide. He tried to categorize them according to the complexity of forms and he continued Agricola’s remit of attempting to remove the supernatural and the occult from the study of the earth. Famously, he studied Glossopterae (tongue stones), which would be further studied by the anatomist, Nicolas Steno. Leonardo Da Vinci (1492–1519), the epitome of the well-educated Renaissance Man, made contributions to geology as he did in many areas of science and the arts. In 1508, he attempted to explain the occurrence of fossils found on the seabed and he rejected the ancient ideas that an unseen force shaped these objects in the earth’s crust. As an alternative view, he proposed that they were the remains of creatures found at sea and buried, developing the controversial idea that this was not because of the biblical deluge still followed by the church and Biblical literalism. He did not follow this idea up, but his notes show that this was his thinking: Whether he failed to publish his findings because he had no interest or because he did not want to make such a bold statement against church doctrine is unclear. This fate also befell Girolamo Frascatoro, who also proposed this idea but did not pursue his theory. Bernard Palissy, in 1580, also believed that the remains of animals had become embedded in the crust, but he did not explain how they got there. Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522-1605) followed the work of Da Vinci in paleontology and studied fossils in great detail. In his great work, the "Musaeum Metallicum" published posthumously in 1648, he classified and described hundreds of fossils found in rocks, soils and resins. He was a believer in observation as the basis of research, but he also understood that he had to make connections and test his ideas.

Megalodon shark fossilized tooth - an example of a glossopteris tongue stone (Creative Commons)

Aldrovandi decided to compare the anatomy of fossils with living animals as a way of proving that fossils were indeed the remains of long dead animals. He also compared holes found in ancient rocks with the work of burrowing mollusks and concluded that these rocks must have been subjected to the same process, an area that he devoted much study to. Aldrovandi had no explanation for the fossils that borer little resemblance to modern animals, speculating that they were an inorganic artifact created during the formation of rocks. His ideas were not accepted by the mainstream until long after his death and, because of his challenge to the creation myth, he spent the last years of his life under house arrest.

These geologists laid the foundations of geology as we know it, but it was the scholar, Niclas Steno, who would take these ideas and refine them. He devised laws of geology that had the same impact upon earth science as Newton’s laws did to physics. In a short career, he changed how humanity understands the earth beneath our feet.

 

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